Authority

Outline the procedure of Milgram's (1963) study of obedience. (8 marks)",
"marks": 8,
"solution": "Introduction: Milgram aimed to investigate how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person. He used a controlled observation in a laboratory setting at Yale University.

Paragraph 1 - Sample & Roles: He recruited 40 male participants aged 20-50 through a newspaper ad. When each participant arrived, they met a confederate. Through a rigged draw, the real participant was always assigned the role of 'Teacher' and the confederate the role of 'Learner'.

Paragraph 2 - The Task: The Teacher was instructed to administer an electric shock to the Learner for every incorrect answer on a word-pair task. The shock generator had 30 switches, ranging from 15V to 450V. The shocks were not real, but the Teacher believed they were.

Paragraph 3 - The Prods: If the Teacher hesitated, a stern experimenter in a lab coat delivered a sequence of four standardised verbal prods, such as 'The experiment requires that you continue' and 'You have no other choice, you must go on'. The experiment ended if the participant refused to continue after the fourth prod, or after they had administered the 450V shock.",
"examiner_commentary": "This is a top-level answer. It is concise but packed with the specific details examiners look for: the sample, the roles, the nature of the task, the voltage range, and the use of standardised prods. It demonstrates clear and accurate knowledge of the procedure, which is essential for AO1 marks."

Compare Milgram (1963) with Bocchiaro et al. (2012) as studies of responses to authority. (15 marks)",
"marks": 15,
"solution": "Introduction: Both Milgram and Bocchiaro conducted laboratory experiments to investigate responses to authority, but they differ significantly in their focus, methodology, and findings.

Similarity - Method: Both studies were conducted in a controlled laboratory setting and used a standardised procedure. For example, Milgram used the same four verbal prods for all participants, while Bocchiaro used a scripted interaction with the authority figure. This increases the internal validity and replicability of both studies.

Difference - Behaviour Measured: A key difference is the behaviour measured. Milgram focused solely on destructive obedience, operationalised as administering electric shocks. In contrast, Bocchiaro offered a more nuanced view by measuring three potential responses: obedience (writing the unethical letter), disobedience (refusing), and whistleblowing (reporting to the ethics committee). This gives Bocchiaro's study greater insight into the different ways people can resist unjust authority.

Difference - Sample: The samples also differed significantly. Milgram used 40 American men aged 20-50 from a range of occupations. This is an androcentric and ethnocentric sample, limiting the generalisability of the findings. Bocchiaro used a larger sample of 149 undergraduate students (both male and female) from the Netherlands, which is still culturally specific but arguably more representative of a young, educated population.

Difference - Ethics: While both studies involved deception, Bocchiaro's was ethically superior. Milgram's participants experienced extreme psychological distress, and their right to withdraw was compromised by the verbal prods. Bocchiaro, learning from this, ensured there was no physical harm, the right to withdraw was clear, and a full debrief was given. This reflects the evolution of ethical guidelines in psychology.

Conclusion: In conclusion, while both studies powerfully demonstrate high levels of obedience to authority, Bocchiaro's study provides a more modern and ethically sound investigation into the complexities of disobedience and whistleblowing, whereas Milgram's study remains a stark, albeit controversial, illustration of destructive obedience.",
"examiner_commentary": "A superb comparative essay. The candidate consistently makes a point of comparison (e.g., Method), provides evidence from both studies (e.g., prods vs scripted interaction), and explains the implication of this comparison (e.g., validity). The structure is clear, and the argument is balanced and well-supported. This would achieve top-band marks."

To what extent do the findings of Milgram and Bocchiaro support a situational explanation of behaviour? (15 marks)",
"marks": 15,
"solution": "Introduction: A situational explanation proposes that our behaviour is primarily caused by the social context, rather than our individual personality. The findings of both Milgram and Bocchiaro provide strong, though not absolute, support for this view.

Argument for Situational Explanation: The primary evidence comes from the high obedience rates in both studies. In Milgram, 65% of ordinary men obeyed an authority figure to the point of administering a 450V shock. In Bocchiaro, 76.5% obeyed an instruction to write a deceptive letter. It is highly improbable that the majority of participants in both studies had a flawed or sadistic personality. Therefore, the most plausible explanation is that the situation itself – the presence of a legitimate authority figure, the prestigious university setting, the gradual commitment – caused their behaviour. This is the core of Milgram's agentic state theory.

Further Support for Situational Explanation: Bocchiaro's comparison group data adds further weight. When asked to predict their behaviour, most people claimed they would disobey or whistleblow. The vast difference between predicted behaviour and actual behaviour (only 9.4% actually whistleblew) strongly suggests that people fail to appreciate the power of the situation until they are in it.

Counter-argument (Role of Individual Factors): However, the support is not absolute. In every variation of Milgram's study, some participants resisted. The 35% who defied the experimenter demonstrate that situational forces are not irresistible; individual free will can prevail. Similarly, the 14.1% who disobeyed and 9.4% who whistleblew in Bocchiaro's study show that individual differences matter. Bocchiaro himself found a weak link between faith and whistleblowing, suggesting dispositional factors can play a part, albeit a smaller one.

Conclusion: In conclusion, the findings of both studies overwhelmingly support a situational explanation. The sheer number of people who obeyed unethical orders cannot be explained by individual pathology. The situation is clearly the most powerful force. However, the existence of disobedience and whistleblowing in both studies serves as a crucial reminder that determinism is not absolute. While the situation shapes our behaviour, it does not completely eliminate our capacity for individual choice and resistance.",
"examiner_commentary": "This is a classic 'To what extent' essay, and this answer handles it perfectly. It builds a strong case for the situational argument using evidence from both studies, then presents a nuanced counter-argument, acknowledging the role of individual factors. The conclusion provides a clear and well-supported judgement. This is high-level analysis."