Surveys

Overview

Surveys are the cornerstone of quantitative sociological research and a primary tool for positivists. For the Edexcel GCSE Sociology exam, candidates must demonstrate a precise understanding of how surveys are constructed, administered, and evaluated. This involves distinguishing between self-completion questionnaires and structured interviews, analysing various sampling techniques, and critically assessing the strengths and limitations of survey data in terms of practicality, ethics, and theory (PET). Examiners expect you to move beyond simple definitions and apply your knowledge to specific research scenarios, evaluating why a sociologist might choose a survey over other methods and analysing the impact of methodological choices on the quality of the data collected. Mastery of this topic is essential for achieving high marks in the research methods section of your exam, as it tests your ability to think like a sociologist and scrutinise the evidence that underpins sociological claims.

Key Concepts in Survey Design & Application

Positivism and the Scientific Approach

What it is: Positivism is the belief that sociology can and should be a science. Positivists favour methods that produce quantitative, objective, and reliable data that can be used to identify social trends, patterns, and the laws that govern society.

Why it matters: Surveys are the classic positivist method. Their use of standardised questions and closed-ended responses generates large-scale, numerical data that can be statistically analysed. This allows researchers to make generalisations about the wider population and test hypotheses in a systematic way. For example, the government uses the UK Census, a massive survey, to gather reliable data on population demographics, which informs public policy.

Specific Knowledge: You must be able to link surveys to the positivist preference for reliability, objectivity, and generalisability.

Types of Surveys

1. Self-Completion Questionnaires:

• What they are: Respondents complete the questionnaire themselves without a researcher present. They can be distributed via post, online, or handed out in person.
• Strengths: Generally low cost, can reach a geographically wide sample quickly, and the anonymity can encourage honest answers on sensitive topics.
• Weaknesses: Often suffer from a low response rate, which undermines the representativeness of the sample. There is no opportunity to clarify questions, and you don't know who actually completed it.

2. Structured Interviews:

• What they are: An interviewer asks a set of pre-written, standardised questions and records the answers. This can be done face-to-face or over the phone.
• Strengths: The presence of the interviewer ensures a high response rate and that all questions are answered. It also allows for clarification.
• Weaknesses: They are very time-consuming and expensive to conduct. The presence of the interviewer can also create interviewer bias, where the interviewer's characteristics (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) influence the respondent's answers.

The Process of Survey Research

1. Operationalisation: This is a crucial first step where a sociologist defines the abstract concepts they want to study into something measurable. For example, 'social class' could be operationalised as a combination of occupation, income, and education level. Without this, questions can be vague and the data meaningless.

2. Pilot Studies: Before launching the main survey, a researcher will conduct a pilot study – a small-scale trial run. This helps to identify any confusing questions, check the length of the survey, and refine the overall design. Marks are frequently awarded for mentioning the role of pilot studies in improving research.

3. Sampling: It is usually impossible to survey an entire population, so a sociologist selects a smaller, representative sample. The quality of the sample determines how far the findings can be generalised.

Second-Order Concepts: Evaluating Surveys

Reliability vs. Validity

This is the central theoretical debate. Reliability refers to consistency – if another researcher repeated the survey, would they get the same results? Because of the standardised questions, surveys are highly reliable. Validity, however, refers to truthfulness and depth – does the data give a true picture of what is being studied? Interpretivists argue surveys lack validity because closed questions force respondents into fixed categories (the imposition problem) and don't capture the nuances of their experiences.

Representativeness and Generalisability

A key strength of large-scale surveys is their potential to be representative. If the sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the wider population, the findings can be generalised. However, this is often undermined by a low response rate. If only certain types of people return their questionnaires (e.g., the retired and the unemployed), the final sample will be unrepresentative.

Practical Issues (The 'P' in PET)

Consider the real-world factors. How much will it cost? How long will it take? Is the target population easy to access? A postal questionnaire to 10,000 people is cheaper than conducting 200 structured interviews.

Ethical Issues (The 'E' in PET)

All research must follow ethical guidelines. For surveys, this means ensuring informed consent (participants agree to take part), guaranteeing confidentiality and anonymity, and ensuring no harm comes to the respondent. When researching vulnerable groups (like children or victims of crime), these considerations are even more critical.