Current nutritional guidelines and recommendations

Overview

Current nutritional guidelines represent one of the most frequently examined topics in AQA GCSE Food Preparation and Nutrition. Candidates must demonstrate comprehensive understanding of three core frameworks: the Eatwell Guide, the UK government's 8 tips for healthy eating, and Dietary Reference Values (DRVs). This topic appears across multiple question types, from short-answer recall questions worth 2-4 marks to extended response questions worth 12 marks that require candidates to evaluate dietary choices for specific target groups such as adolescents, pregnant women, or individuals with coeliac disease. Examiners expect candidates to move beyond vague statements about 'healthy eating' and instead provide precise nutritional justifications using specific nutrient names, physiological functions, and quantified limits such as the 6g daily salt maximum or the 30g fiber recommendation for adults. Success in this topic requires not only factual recall but also the ability to apply guidelines contextually, modify recipes with clear nutritional rationale, and analyze nutritional data to identify deficiencies or excesses that impact long-term health outcomes.

The Eatwell Guide: Visual Framework for Balanced Nutrition

The Eatwell Guide is the UK government's official visual representation of a balanced diet, and candidates must memorize both the proportions and the specific guidance for each food group. The guide is structured as a circular plate divided into five segments, each representing a food group with precise proportional recommendations.

Fruit and Vegetables (40% of the plate)

This is the largest section of the Eatwell Guide, emphasizing that fruit and vegetables should form the foundation of every meal. Candidates must know the '5 a day' recommendation, which specifies at least five portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables daily. One portion is approximately 80g for fresh, frozen, or canned produce, or 30g for dried fruit. Examiners award marks for explaining that this food group provides essential vitamins (particularly vitamin C for immune function and collagen synthesis), minerals (such as potassium for blood pressure regulation), dietary fiber for digestive health, and phytochemicals with antioxidant properties that reduce the risk of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease and certain cancers. When modifying recipes, candidates should specify increasing vegetable content by adding specific examples such as peppers, tomatoes, or leafy greens rather than making vague statements about 'adding more vegetables.'

Starchy Carbohydrates (38% of the plate)

Starchy carbohydrates form the second-largest section and include bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, and cereals. The critical detail that earns marks is specifying 'wholegrain or higher fiber varieties where possible.' Candidates must explain that starchy carbohydrates are the body's primary energy source, providing glucose for cellular respiration, and that wholegrain varieties offer additional benefits including B vitamins (thiamin, niacin, folate) for energy metabolism, dietary fiber for digestive health and satiety, and a lower glycemic index that helps maintain stable blood glucose levels. When answering questions about energy balance or weight management, candidates should reference that carbohydrates should provide approximately 50% of total energy intake and avoid the common misconception that 'carbohydrates make you fat' without considering overall energy balance and activity levels.

Proteins (12% of the plate)

The protein section includes beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat, and other protein sources. Candidates must know the specific recommendation to eat at least two portions of fish per week, with one portion being oily fish such as salmon, mackerel, sardines, or trout. This detail frequently appears in exam questions and is worth marks. Examiners expect candidates to explain that proteins provide essential amino acids for growth, repair of body tissues, enzyme and hormone synthesis, and immune function. Oily fish specifically provides omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) that support cardiovascular health, brain function, and reduce inflammation. When recommending protein sources for specific groups, candidates should consider factors such as iron bioavailability (heme iron from meat versus non-heme iron from plant sources) and the need for pregnant women to avoid certain fish high in mercury.

Dairy and Alternatives (8% of the plate)

This section includes milk, cheese, yogurt, and fortified plant-based alternatives such as soya drinks. The key guidance that earns marks is to 'choose lower fat and lower sugar options.' Candidates must explain that this food group is the primary source of calcium for bone and teeth development and maintenance, and also provides protein, vitamin B12 for red blood cell formation, and iodine for thyroid function. When modifying recipes, candidates should specify replacements such as 'replace full-fat milk with semi-skimmed milk to reduce saturated fat intake while maintaining calcium content' rather than simply stating 'use low-fat dairy.' For individuals with lactose intolerance or milk allergy, candidates must recommend fortified alternatives that provide equivalent calcium levels (at least 120mg per 100ml).

Oils and Spreads (1% of the plate)

This is the smallest section and the one where candidates most frequently make errors. The guidance is NOT to eliminate fats entirely but to 'choose unsaturated oils and use in small amounts.' Candidates must explain that unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) found in olive oil, rapeseed oil, and vegetable oils are essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), provide essential fatty acids, and support cell membrane structure. The recommendation is to limit total fat intake to less than 70-95g daily for adults, with saturated fat comprising less than 20-30g (under 10% of total energy intake). Examiners penalize responses that suggest eliminating all fats or fail to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats.

The 8 Tips for Healthy Eating

The UK government's 8 tips for healthy eating provide practical, actionable guidance that candidates must know precisely. These tips appear frequently in exam questions asking candidates to provide dietary advice or evaluate meal plans.

Tip 1: Base meals on starchy carbohydrates

Candidates should specify choosing wholegrain or higher fiber varieties such as wholemeal bread, brown rice, wholewheat pasta, or potatoes with skins. These provide sustained energy release, B vitamins, and dietary fiber that promotes digestive health and satiety.

Tip 2: Eat lots of fruit and vegetables

The specific target is at least five portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables each day. Candidates should explain that variety is important because different colors provide different phytochemicals and nutrients. Fresh, frozen, canned, dried, and juiced all count, but fruit juice and smoothies are limited to a maximum of 150ml per day (one portion) due to free sugar content.

Tip 3: Eat more fish, including oily fish

The specific recommendation is at least two portions of fish per week, with one being oily fish. One portion is approximately 140g. Candidates must explain that oily fish provides omega-3 fatty acids that reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and support brain function.

Tip 4: Cut down on saturated fat and sugar

Candidates must know the specific limits: adults should consume no more than 20-30g of saturated fat daily (less than 10% of energy intake) and no more than 30g of free sugars daily. Free sugars include added sugars, honey, syrups, and sugars naturally present in fruit juices, but exclude sugars naturally present in whole fruits, vegetables, and milk. High saturated fat intake raises LDL cholesterol levels, increasing cardiovascular disease risk, while excessive sugar intake contributes to tooth decay, weight gain, and Type 2 diabetes.

Tip 5: Eat less salt

The specific limit is no more than 6g of salt per day for adults (approximately one teaspoon). This is equivalent to 2.4g of sodium. Candidates should explain that excessive salt intake raises blood pressure, increasing the risk of stroke and heart disease. Approximately 75% of dietary salt comes from processed foods, so candidates should recommend checking food labels and choosing lower-salt alternatives.

Tip 6: Get active and maintain a healthy weight

Candidates should explain the concept of energy balance: weight is maintained when energy intake (from food and drink) equals energy expenditure (from basal metabolic rate and physical activity). Being overweight or obese increases the risk of Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and joint problems. The recommendation is at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity per week for adults.

Tip 7: Don't get thirsty

The specific recommendation is to drink 6-8 glasses (approximately 1.5-2 liters) of fluid daily. Water, lower-fat milk, and sugar-free drinks including tea and coffee all count. Candidates should explain that adequate hydration is essential for temperature regulation, nutrient transport, waste removal, and cognitive function. Dehydration can cause headaches, fatigue, and reduced concentration.

Tip 8: Don't skip breakfast

Candidates should explain that a healthy breakfast provides energy to start the day, improves concentration and performance, and contributes essential nutrients including fiber, B vitamins, calcium, and iron. Skipping breakfast is associated with poorer nutrient intake overall and may lead to overeating later in the day.

Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)

Dietary Reference Values are scientifically determined estimates of the amounts of energy and nutrients needed by different groups of people. Candidates must be able to apply DRVs to justify dietary recommendations and evaluate whether meal plans meet nutritional needs.

Energy Requirements

Energy requirements vary significantly based on age, sex, body size, and physical activity level. The reference values for adults are approximately 2000 kcal per day for women and 2500 kcal per day for men. However, candidates must recognize that adolescents have higher energy needs due to growth and development: boys aged 11-18 require 2500-3000 kcal daily, while girls aged 11-18 require 2000-2200 kcal daily. Children aged 7-10 require approximately 1740 kcal (boys) and 1530 kcal (girls). Older adults over 50 have lower energy requirements due to reduced basal metabolic rate and typically lower activity levels: approximately 2000-2300 kcal for men and 1600-1800 kcal for women.

Macronutrient Requirements

Protein: Adults require approximately 45-55g daily (0.75g per kg body weight). Adolescents require more due to growth: 45-55g daily. Protein should provide approximately 15% of total energy intake. Candidates should explain that protein requirements increase during pregnancy (additional 6g daily), lactation (additional 11g daily), and for athletes or individuals recovering from illness or injury.

Carbohydrates: Should provide approximately 50% of total energy intake. For a 2000 kcal diet, this equates to approximately 260g of carbohydrates daily. Candidates must specify that free sugars should be limited to no more than 30g daily (5% of energy intake).

Fat: Total fat intake should be less than 70-95g daily for adults (under 35% of energy intake). Saturated fat should comprise less than 20-30g daily (under 10% of energy intake). Candidates should explain that the focus is on replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats rather than eliminating fats entirely.

Fiber: Adults should consume at least 30g of dietary fiber daily. Adolescents require 25g, and children aged 7-10 require 20g. Adequate fiber intake promotes digestive health, helps maintain healthy blood cholesterol levels, and increases satiety.

Micronutrient Requirements

Candidates must know key micronutrient requirements for specific groups that frequently appear in exam questions:

Calcium: Adults require 700mg daily, but adolescents aged 11-18 require 800-1000mg daily due to rapid bone growth. Postmenopausal women and older adults also have increased needs to prevent osteoporosis. Calcium is essential for bone and teeth structure, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and nerve function.

Iron: Adult men require 8.7mg daily, while women aged 11-50 require 11.3-14.8mg daily due to menstrual blood loss. Pregnant women require additional iron to support fetal development and increased maternal blood volume. Iron is essential for hemoglobin synthesis and oxygen transport. Candidates should distinguish between heme iron (from meat, well absorbed) and non-heme iron (from plant sources, less well absorbed unless consumed with vitamin C).

Vitamin D: All individuals require 10μg (400 IU) daily. Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption and bone health. Candidates should explain that vitamin D is synthesized in the skin through sunlight exposure, but dietary sources (oily fish, fortified foods, egg yolks) become important during winter months or for individuals with limited sun exposure.

Vitamin C: Adults require 40mg daily. Vitamin C is essential for collagen synthesis, immune function, iron absorption, and acts as an antioxidant. Deficiency causes scurvy. Good sources include citrus fruits, berries, peppers, and leafy greens.

Folate: Adults require 200μg daily, but pregnant women require 400μg daily (ideally from supplements before conception and during the first trimester) to prevent neural tube defects in the developing fetus.

Application to Specific Target Groups

Examiners frequently test candidates' ability to apply nutritional guidelines to specific populations with particular needs:

Adolescents (11-18 years)

Adolescents have increased energy and nutrient requirements due to rapid growth and development. Key considerations include higher calcium needs (800-1000mg) for bone development, increased iron requirements particularly for menstruating girls (11.3-14.8mg), adequate protein for muscle development, and sufficient energy to support growth and physical activity. Candidates should recommend nutrient-dense foods rather than energy-dense but nutrient-poor snacks, and emphasize the importance of regular meals including breakfast to support concentration and academic performance.

Pregnant Women

Pregnant women require additional nutrients to support fetal development. Key recommendations include 400μg folate daily (ideally from supplements) to prevent neural tube defects, increased iron to support expanded blood volume and fetal needs, adequate calcium for fetal bone development, vitamin D for calcium absorption, and avoidance of certain foods including unpasteurized dairy, raw or undercooked eggs and meat, liver (excessive vitamin A), and certain fish high in mercury. Energy requirements increase by approximately 200 kcal daily in the third trimester only.

Elderly Adults (50+ years)

Older adults have reduced energy requirements but maintained or increased needs for certain nutrients. Key considerations include adequate calcium (700mg) and vitamin D (10μg) to prevent osteoporosis, sufficient protein to prevent muscle loss (sarcopenia), adequate fiber to prevent constipation, and sufficient fluid intake as thirst sensation decreases with age. Candidates should also consider factors such as reduced appetite, difficulty chewing or swallowing, and social isolation that may impact nutritional intake.

Individuals with Coeliac Disease

Coeliac disease is an autoimmune condition triggered by gluten (a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye). Candidates must recommend a strict gluten-free diet, replacing wheat-based products with gluten-free alternatives such as rice, potatoes, corn, quinoa, and gluten-free labeled products. Important considerations include ensuring adequate fiber intake (as many gluten-free products are lower in fiber), checking for gluten in unexpected sources (sauces, processed meats), and ensuring fortification with B vitamins and iron that are often added to wheat-based products.

Worked Examples

Example 1: Recipe Modification Question

Question: A recipe for macaroni cheese uses full-fat cheddar cheese, whole milk, butter, and white pasta. Modify this recipe to make it more suitable for an adult trying to reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease. Justify each modification with reference to specific nutrients. (8 marks)

Model Answer:

To reduce cardiovascular disease risk, I would make the following modifications:

First, replace the full-fat cheddar cheese with reduced-fat cheddar cheese. This modification reduces saturated fat intake, which is important because high saturated fat consumption raises LDL cholesterol levels in the blood. Elevated LDL cholesterol increases the risk of atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in artery walls), which can lead to heart attacks and strokes. Adults should limit saturated fat to less than 20-30g daily, and full-fat cheese is a significant source.

Second, replace whole milk with semi-skimmed or skimmed milk. This further reduces saturated fat content while maintaining the calcium content necessary for bone health and muscle function. Semi-skimmed milk contains approximately 1.7g fat per 100ml compared to 3.6g in whole milk, representing a significant reduction when used in cooking.

Third, replace white pasta with wholewheat pasta. Wholewheat pasta provides more dietary fiber (approximately 9g per 100g compared to 3g in white pasta), which helps reduce blood cholesterol levels by binding to cholesterol in the digestive system and removing it from the body. Adequate fiber intake (30g daily for adults) is associated with reduced cardiovascular disease risk.

Fourth, reduce or replace the butter with a small amount of unsaturated oil such as olive oil or rapeseed oil. Butter is high in saturated fat, while unsaturated oils contain monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats that can help lower LDL cholesterol when used to replace saturated fats. However, all fats should be used sparingly as they are energy-dense.

Finally, add vegetables such as tomatoes, peppers, and spinach to increase the fruit and vegetable content. This increases the intake of antioxidants (such as vitamins C and E) and phytochemicals that protect against oxidative damage to blood vessels, as well as increasing fiber and potassium content. Potassium helps regulate blood pressure by counteracting the effects of sodium.

Examiner Commentary: This answer achieves full marks because it identifies specific ingredients to modify, names appropriate replacements, and provides detailed nutritional justifications linking specific nutrients to physiological functions and long-term health outcomes. The candidate demonstrates understanding of the relationship between saturated fat and LDL cholesterol, the role of fiber in cholesterol reduction, and the benefits of unsaturated fats and antioxidants for cardiovascular health.

Example 2: Dietary Analysis Question

Question: Analyze the following day's food intake for a 15-year-old girl and identify two nutritional concerns. For each concern, explain the potential health consequences and recommend specific dietary changes. (12 marks)

Food Intake:

• Breakfast: Skipped
• Lunch: White bread sandwich with jam, packet of crisps, fizzy drink
• Dinner: Chicken nuggets, chips, small portion of peas
• Snacks: Chocolate bar, biscuits

Model Answer:

The first major nutritional concern is inadequate iron intake. Adolescent girls aged 11-18 require 11.3-14.8mg of iron daily due to menstrual blood loss and the demands of growth. The food intake described contains minimal iron-rich foods. While chicken nuggets contain some iron, the portion is small and the breaded coating reduces the proportion of actual meat. The lack of red meat, fortified cereals, pulses, or dark leafy vegetables means this diet is likely deficient in iron.

Inadequate iron intake leads to iron-deficiency anemia, characterized by reduced hemoglobin levels in red blood cells. This impairs oxygen transport to tissues, resulting in fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and reduced concentration and academic performance. In adolescent girls, this can also affect growth and development. Long-term iron deficiency can compromise immune function, making the individual more susceptible to infections.

To address this concern, I would recommend including iron-rich foods at multiple meals. For breakfast, she should consume fortified breakfast cereal with semi-skimmed milk, which provides iron along with vitamin C from a glass of orange juice to enhance iron absorption (vitamin C converts non-heme iron to a more absorbable form). For lunch, replace the jam sandwich with a wholemeal bread sandwich containing lean red meat, chicken, or tuna, which provide heme iron that is more readily absorbed than plant-based non-heme iron. For dinner, increase the portion of peas and add other vegetables such as broccoli or spinach, which contain non-heme iron. Including a source of vitamin C at this meal (such as a glass of orange juice or tomatoes) will enhance the absorption of non-heme iron from plant sources.

The second major nutritional concern is excessive intake of free sugars and inadequate fiber. The diet contains multiple sources of free sugars including the jam, fizzy drink, chocolate bar, and biscuits, likely exceeding the recommended maximum of 30g daily for adults (adolescents should aim for similar or lower amounts). Simultaneously, the diet is very low in fiber due to the predominance of refined carbohydrates (white bread, chicken nuggets, chips) and minimal fruit and vegetables, falling far short of the 25g daily recommendation for adolescents.

Excessive sugar intake has multiple negative health consequences. It significantly increases the risk of dental caries (tooth decay) as bacteria in the mouth metabolize sugars to produce acids that erode tooth enamel. High sugar consumption also contributes to weight gain and obesity because sugary foods and drinks provide energy without promoting satiety, leading to overconsumption of calories. This increases the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes in later life, as excess body fat impairs insulin sensitivity. Additionally, inadequate fiber intake compromises digestive health, potentially causing constipation, and means missing out on fiber's benefits for blood cholesterol regulation and satiety.

To address this concern, I would recommend replacing the fizzy drink with water or sugar-free alternatives, immediately reducing free sugar intake significantly. Replace white bread with wholemeal bread to increase fiber content from approximately 3g per 100g to 9g per 100g. Replace the jam sandwich filling with peanut butter (providing protein and healthy fats) or mashed avocado. Add at least five portions of fruit and vegetables throughout the day: fruit with breakfast cereal, an apple or banana as a mid-morning snack instead of the chocolate bar, salad in the lunchtime sandwich, and increased vegetable portions at dinner. Replace the biscuits with a healthier snack such as vegetable sticks with hummus or a small handful of unsalted nuts. These changes would significantly increase fiber intake while reducing free sugars, supporting both immediate health and reducing long-term disease risk.

Examiner Commentary: This answer achieves top marks (Level 4, 10-12 marks) because it identifies two distinct and significant nutritional concerns, provides detailed explanations of the physiological consequences with specific reference to health outcomes, and recommends multiple specific, practical dietary changes with clear nutritional justifications. The candidate demonstrates sophisticated understanding by explaining the mechanism of iron absorption enhancement by vitamin C, distinguishing between heme and non-heme iron, and linking excessive sugar intake to multiple health outcomes including dental health, obesity, and Type 2 diabetes. The response is well-structured, uses precise nutritional terminology, and applies DRVs appropriately for the specific age group.

Example 3: Eatwell Guide Application Question

Question: Using the Eatwell Guide, evaluate how well the following meal meets the recommendations for a balanced diet: Grilled salmon fillet, large portion of chips, small portion of peas, glass of orange juice. (6 marks)

Model Answer:

This meal has both strengths and weaknesses when evaluated against the Eatwell Guide.

Strengths: The meal includes grilled salmon, which is an oily fish and an excellent source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA). This aligns with the Eatwell Guide recommendation to eat at least two portions of fish per week, with one being oily fish. Omega-3 fatty acids support cardiovascular health and brain function. The peas represent the fruit and vegetables section of the Eatwell Guide, providing fiber, vitamins (particularly vitamin C and folate), and minerals. The orange juice also contributes to the fruit and vegetables recommendation, although fruit juice is limited to one 150ml portion daily due to free sugar content.

Weaknesses: The most significant issue is the large portion of chips, which are high in fat (particularly if deep-fried) and salt. While potatoes belong to the starchy carbohydrates section of the Eatwell Guide (38% of the plate), the Eatwell Guide recommends choosing lower-fat cooking methods. Deep-fried chips are high in fat and energy, and if commercially prepared, often contain excessive salt (adults should limit salt to 6g daily). The portion size of chips appears to dominate the meal, potentially exceeding the recommended proportion for starchy carbohydrates. Additionally, the portion of peas is described as small, meaning the fruit and vegetables component (which should be 40% of the plate, the largest section) is inadequate. The meal lacks any representation from the dairy and alternatives section, missing an opportunity to provide calcium for bone health.

To better align with the Eatwell Guide, I would recommend reducing the portion size of chips and choosing a lower-fat cooking method such as oven-baked with minimal oil, or replacing some of the chips with boiled or jacket potato with skin (providing more fiber). Significantly increase the portion of peas and add other vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, or a side salad to ensure fruit and vegetables comprise the largest portion of the meal. Consider adding a dairy component such as a glass of semi-skimmed milk or a small portion of yogurt for dessert to represent the dairy and alternatives section and provide calcium.

Examiner Commentary: This answer achieves full marks because it systematically evaluates the meal against the Eatwell Guide, identifying both strengths (oily fish, vegetables, fruit juice) and weaknesses (excessive chips, inadequate vegetables, missing dairy), explains the nutritional significance of each component with reference to specific nutrients and health benefits, and provides practical recommendations for improvement with clear justification. The candidate demonstrates understanding of the Eatwell Guide proportions and the importance of cooking methods in determining the nutritional quality of foods.

Memory Hooks and Mnemonics

To help candidates remember the essential information for exam success, the following memory hooks are provided:

Eatwell Guide Proportions: "40-38-12-8-1"

Remember the proportions in descending order: 40% Fruit and Vegetables, 38% Starchy Carbohydrates, 12% Proteins, 8% Dairy, 1% Oils.

8 Tips Mnemonic: "STARCHY FISH LESS ACTIVE BREAKFAST"

• Starchy carbohydrates as base
• Two portions fish (one oily)
• Active and healthy weight
• Reduce saturated fat and sugar
• Cut salt to 6g
• Hydrate with 6-8 glasses
• Yield to vegetables (5 a day)
• BREAKFAST - don't skip it

Key Numbers: "6-30-30-5"

Remember the four critical daily limits for adults:

• 6g salt maximum
• 30g fiber minimum
• 30g free sugars maximum
• 5 portions fruit and vegetables minimum

DRV Energy: "Women 2000, Men 2500, Teens Add 500"

Adult women need approximately 2000 kcal, adult men need 2500 kcal, and adolescent boys need an additional 500 kcal (2500-3000 kcal).

Calcium for Teens: "Growing Bones Need 800-1000"

Adolescents aged 11-18 require 800-1000mg calcium daily for bone development, higher than the adult requirement of 700mg.

Iron for Girls: "11 to 15 for Menstruation"

Adolescent and adult women require 11.3-14.8mg iron daily due to menstrual blood loss, compared to 8.7mg for men.

Quick Summary: Essential Facts for Exam Success

1. Eatwell Guide proportions: 40% fruit and vegetables (largest), 38% starchy carbohydrates (wholegrain), 12% proteins (2 fish portions weekly, one oily), 8% dairy (lower fat/sugar), 1% oils (unsaturated, small amounts).

2. 8 Tips for Healthy Eating: Base meals on starchy carbs; 5 a day fruit and veg; 2 fish portions weekly (one oily); cut saturated fat and sugar; 6g salt maximum; get active; 6-8 glasses fluid; don't skip breakfast.

3. Key daily limits for adults: 6g salt, 30g fiber, 30g free sugars maximum, 2000 kcal (women) or 2500 kcal (men).

4. Adolescent needs: Higher energy (2500-3000 kcal boys, 2000-2200 kcal girls), 800-1000mg calcium for bone growth, 11.3-14.8mg iron for girls.

5. Precision in exams: Link nutrients to specific physiological functions (e.g., 'calcium for bone density' not 'strong bones'), use exact figures (6g salt, 30g fiber), distinguish between food intolerance and allergy.

6. Recipe modification structure: State ingredient removed → name replacement → give nutritional justification with specific nutrients and health consequences.

7. Target group considerations: Always check age, sex, activity level, and any dietary requirements (pregnancy, coeliac disease) before making recommendations.

Listen to the Revision Podcast

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